Blitzing Britain
A month of mass daytime attacks
The campaign of mass air attacks waged by Nazi Germany against the United Kingdom during the Second World War became known simply as The Blitz (from the German word for "flash"), a shortened form of the surprise attack concept, Blitzkrieg, popularized by the wartime press.
This phase of relentless, aerial bombardment which took place primarily during the day - is referred to as the Daylight Blitz to differentiate it from the next, final phase - the Night Blitz.
It was the last major German attempt to achieve strategic victory by day.
The spectacular attacks on the London docks were meant to be visible, morale-breaking daylight events.
The Daylight Blitz lasted from the 7th September - 30th September 1940.*
* Some sources suggest other dates for the start and end of the Blitz..
The Daylight Blitz (7th September – 31st Oct 1940) saw mass German bomber formations attack London by day, allowing the RAF to intercept. The Night Blitz (November 1940 – May 1941) was a shift to sustained, scattered night bombing of cities nationwide after daylight losses became unsustainable for the Luftwaffe.
...a fierce contest for daylight air superiority...
Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, the Luftwaffe's commander-in-chief. ordered the strategic shift on September 6, 1940. Following his directive with Hitler, the focus moved to mass air attacks on British cities, beginning the devastating Blitz.
As the Battle of Britain drew to a close in 1940, the Luftwaffe and the Royal Air Force (RAF) were locked in a fierce contest for daylight air superiority over the United Kingdom.
Seeking a decisive confrontation, Adolf Hitler and Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, the Luftwaffe's commander-in-chief, issued a new directive on the 6th September 1940.
The strategic shift involved launching mass air attacks against British cities, starting with London, in a calculated effort to draw the RAF Fighter Command into a final, decisive engagement—a battle of annihilation.
The campaign began with devastating immediate effect. From September 7, 1940, London was subjected to systematic bombardment for 56 out of the next 57 days and nights.
Significant raids punctuated this initial phase, including a large daylight assault on September 15 and a massive raid on the night of December 29, 1940, which triggered a firestorm famously dubbed the Second Great Fire of London.
The sustained attacks culminated in another major raid on the night of May the 10th - 11th 1941.
A forward machine gunner sits at his battle position in the nose of a German Heinkel He 111 bomber, while en route to England in November of 1940. The Heinkel was one of the main German medium bombers, which saw service throughout the Second World War.
AP Photo
...transitioning the Blitz into a protracted night bombing campaign...
To evade the growing threat of RAF countermeasures, the Luftwaffe gradually reduced its daylight operations, transitioning the Blitz into a protracted night bombing campaign after October 1940.
While London bore the initial and most concentrated impact, the attacks soon expanded to target vital ports and industrial centres across the country.
Major Atlantic and North Sea seaports were priority targets.
These included the Liverpool Blitz and the devastating Hull Blitz, the latter often serving as a convenient secondary target for bombers unable to locate their primary objectives.
Other port cities—Bristol, Cardiff, Portsmouth, Plymouth, Southampton, Sunderland, Swansea, Belfast, and Glasgow—were also severely struck. Industrial heartlands such as Birmingham, Coventry, Manchester, and Sheffield faced heavy bombardment as well.
Bomb damage on Huntley Road, Fairfield. Liverpool, 15th - 16th September 1940. Liverpool was one of many British cities attacked by the Luftwaffe.
Birmingham - seen here with palls of smoke drifiting over it after a bombing raid - was a key target for the Luftwaffe during the Blitz.
The Blitz Around Britain - World War 2 | Imperial War Museums (iwm.org.uk)
...nearly half of these fatalities occurring in the capital alone...
The human cost was staggering. More than 40,000 civilians were killed by Luftwaffe bombing throughout the war, with nearly half of these fatalities occurring in the capital alone.
In London, over a million houses were either destroyed or damaged.
Despite the immense destruction, the bombing campaign ultimately failed to achieve its strategic goals.
It neither succeeded in demoralizing the British populace into seeking surrender nor in delivering a significant blow to the nation's war economy.
...never seriously hampered British war production...
Over the eight months, the bombing never seriously hampered British war production, which in fact continued to increase.
The greatest functional impact was forcing the dispersal of aircraft and spare parts manufacturing.
Wartime studies concluded that most cities, even when severely hit, took only 10 to 15 days to recover, although some, like Birmingham, took up to three months.
...a fundamental flaw in strategy...
The German air offensive faltered due to a fundamental flaw in strategy: the Luftwaffe High Command (Oberkommando der Luftwaffe, OKL) failed to develop a methodical approach for systematically dismantling British war industry.
Poor intelligence concerning British industrial capacity and economic resilience led the OKL to focus primarily on tactics rather than a coherent strategy.
The bombing effort was further diluted by attacking multiple different industrial sectors instead of maintaining constant, crippling pressure on the industries most crucial to the British war effort.
Coincidentally, in early July 1940, the German High Command had already begun planning Operation Barbarossa, the massive invasion of the Soviet Union, shifting strategic focus away from the battle over Britain.
German troops advancing during Operation Barbarossa in 1941. The failure of the Battle of Britain meant Hitler increasingly prioritized Operation Barbarossa, the massive invasion of the Soviet Union. This required vast military resources, making the continuation of costly, decisive daylight raids on Britain impossible. Therefore, the prolonged, yet resource-limited, Blitz served as a holding action. It punished Britain and tied up defenses while simultaneously allowing the Luftwaffe to gradually redeploy critical bomber units eastward in preparation for the attack on the USSR in mid-1941.
The Battle of Britain
Though the Luftwaffe wasn't primarily engineered for independent strategic air operations, it was tasked with precisely this objective over Britain as a crucial precursor to invasion.
The campaign to wrest control of the skies from the Royal Air Force (RAF) began in earnest during the summer of 1940 with the Kanalkampf ("Channel Battle").
The Supermarine Spitfire. One of the main reasons the Luftwaffe's attempt to win air superiority during the Battle of Britain failed. The Supermarine Spitfire was vital not only for its superior speed and agility at high altitudes but also for its profound morale-boosting effect on the public. Although numerically fewer than the Hurricane, its exceptional performance allowed it to effectively engage and destroy the German Bf 109 fighters. By drawing the enemy escort away, the Spitfire created the essential window of vulnerability that allowed the robust Hurricanes to destroy the unescorted German bombers.
...an attempt to bait the RAF into battle...
From July to mid-August 1940, the Kanalkampf phase saw the Luftwaffe concentrate its strength on attacking English Channel convoys and the key port facilities along the coast.
This was an attempt to bait the RAF into battle and disrupt British shipping and coastal defences.
While these engagements provided valuable combat experience for German aircrews, they failed to cripple RAF Fighter Command, which was the ultimate, indispensable target.
The Luftwaffe's overarching strategic goal was to achieve air superiority—total control of the skies over the invasion area—a condition thought necessary to suppress Bomber Command, Coastal Command, and the powerful Royal Navy during the planned invasion, Operation Sea Lion (Unternehmen Seelöwe).
...targeting the infrastructure...
The air war escalated significantly in mid-August with Adlerangriff ("Eagle Attack"), the concentrated, systematic bombing campaign targeting the infrastructure supporting RAF Fighter Command.
This phase specifically involved the sustained attack of RAF airfields and supporting industries.
The Germans were convinced that destroying the Fighter Command infrastructure would effectively eliminate the RAF as a fighting force and clear the path for the invasion.
...severely hampered by inadequate intelligence...
However, the Luftwaffe's operations were severely hampered by inadequate intelligence.
German aircraft frequently struggled to locate their designated targets, leading to ineffective attacks on factories and airfields.
Crucially, British fighter aircraft production not only continued but surpassed Germany's output during the Battle of Britain—by a ratio of 2 to 1.
In 1940, Britain produced 10,000 aircraft compared to Germany's 8,000.
While both the RAF and Luftwaffe struggled to replace manpower, the circumstances overwhelmingly disadvantaged the Germans.
Operating over home territory, British aircrew could often return to duty if they survived being shot down, but German crews faced certain capture.
Furthermore, German bombers typically carried four to five crew members, meaning each aircraft loss represented a significantly greater toll on German manpower reserves, despite them initially having larger pools of trained aircrew.
...enacted a critical shift...
On the 7th September 1940, based on faulty intelligence that suggested Fighter Command was weakening, the Germans enacted a critical shift, moving away from attacking RAF infrastructure and initiating mass attacks on London.
This decision was driven by the belief that bombing the capital would either force the RAF into a final, decisive battle of annihilation or compel the British Government to surrender.
Historians remain divided on whether this change in strategy was a major mistake by the OKL (Oberkommando der Luftwaffe).
Some contend that persisting with airfield attacks might have secured air superiority, while others argue that the Luftwaffe was already making little impression on Fighter Command and that the strategic shift was not, in itself, decisive.
...a guaranteed disaster...
Compounding the issue was the approaching deterioration of weather in October, making a victory doubtful before the "weather window" closed.
Some historians further argue the outcome of the air battle was ultimately irrelevant, believing the inherent weaknesses of the Kriegsmarine and the massive superiority of the Royal Navy would have made Operation Sea Lion a guaranteed disaster, with or without German air control.
The Strategic Pivot: Frustration, Failure, and the Switch to Night
Frustration mounted within the German High Command. Regardless of the Luftwaffe’s actual ability to achieve air superiority, Adolf Hitler grew impatient with the slow progress of the air battle.
As the Royal Air Force (RAF) showed no sign of weakening and the Luftflotten (Air Fleets) sustained considerable losses, the OKL (Oberkommando der Luftwaffe) was keen to implement a fundamental change in strategy.
This shift prioritized night raids, as the cloak of darkness offered far greater protection for the German bombers, significantly reducing the prohibitive losses suffered during daylight operations.
...significant German losses...
Initially, the new policy focused on the daylight bombing of Britain's industrial cities, primarily London.
The first major raid on the capital struck on the 7th September.
However, a large-scale daylight attack launched on September 15 - a date now known as Battle of Britain Day - resulted in significant German losses without securing any lasting strategic gain.
Although major daylight air battles would continue into October, the Luftwaffe officially switched its main effort to night attacks starting the 7th October, formally beginning the protracted night bombing campaign against London and other major British cities.
...fundamentally limited by their relatively small bomb loads...
While the Luftwaffe's principal medium bomber aircraft - the Dornier Do 17, Junkers Ju 88, and Heinkel He 111s - were technically capable of carrying out strategic missions, the damage they could inflict was fundamentally limited by their relatively small bomb loads.
The Luftwaffe's interwar decision to concentrate on medium bombers stemmed from several factors:
- Hitler did not foresee or plan for a major war with Britain erupting in 1939.
- The OKL genuinely believed that a force of medium bombers could execute strategic missions as effectively as a heavy bomber fleet.
- Crucially, Germany lacked the technical ability or industrial resources to produce modern, four-engined heavy bombers before the war began.
...crippled by a lack of a clear strategy...
Beyond equipment limitations, the German air offensive was crippled by a lack of a clear strategy and poor intelligence.
The OKL had not been formally notified that Britain should be considered a potential long-term opponent until as late as early 1938, leaving insufficient time to gather reliable intelligence on Britain’s decentralized industries.
...paralyzed by indecision...
German planners were paralyzed by indecision on how to apply their bombing power.
They struggled to choose whether to focus their attacks against a specific segment of British industry (like aircraft factories), a system of interrelated industries (such as the vital import and distribution network), or simply a direct blow aimed at breaking the morale of the British population.
This lack of clarity created a strategic drift, with the Luftwaffe’s offensive becoming increasingly aimless throughout the winter of 1940–1941.
Internal debates among OKL staff primarily revolved around minor tactical issues rather than resolving the crucial strategic dilemma, effectively condemning the offensive to failure before it even began.
...swift British reactions...
Operationally, the Luftwaffe faced limitations in weapons technology and swift British reactions.
While targeting ports, shipping, imports, and disrupting rail traffic (especially the distribution of coal - a critical industrial fuel) offered potentially positive results, the use of delayed-action bombs - initially effective - soon lost their impact, partly due to a failure to detonate reliably.
...making them less vulnerable...
Meanwhile, the British had anticipated a shift in strategy.
They effectively dispersed their production facilities, making them less vulnerable to concentrated attack.
Furthermore, Regional Commissioners were granted plenipotentiary powers - full authority - to immediately restore communications and reorganize the distribution of supplies, ensuring the war economy kept moving despite the relentless night raids.
Fear and Foresight: Preparing for Aerial Armageddon
The impending threat of air warfare cast a deep psychological shadow over Britain, especially London, which, with its nine million residents, represented a logistical nightmare for defence.
Drawing on the First World War experience, pre-war estimates of devastation were terrifying, with expectations of up to 3,500 tonnes of bombs in the first 24 hours.
Forecasts, fueled by news of bombings in Guernica and Shanghai, predicted 250,000 casualties in the first week alone, prompting London hospitals to brace for 300,000 casualties.
A 1915 Army Recruitment Poster demonstrating that the fear of being bombed from the air was present even in the First World War.
https://www.mylearning.org/stories/air-raids-on-the-ww1-british-home-front/752?
The Bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. The 1937 Bombing served as a terrifying precursor to the Blitz, illustrating the potential for aircraft to psychologically terrorize and destroy a city. Guernica's devastation, fueled by newsreels, contributed directly to the British government's exaggerated casualty estimates and its fear that mass trauma would cause societal collapse. However, when the Blitz struck, the scale of destruction was higher, yet British civilian resolve defied the Guernica precedent, preventing the predicted psychological breakdown.
...a collapse of civil society...
A poster issued in Norwich in 1940 encouraging local residents to volunteer to the A.R.P. to maintain the fire watch.
Anxiety was so acute that planners accounted for not only high explosives but also poison gas and bacteriological warfare.
Politicians feared a collapse of civil society from mass psychological trauma, with psychiatrists shockingly predicting three to four million mental casualties.
To counter the anticipated chaos, the government executed a massive preemptive plan for the evacuation of four million people, including overseas programs that abruptly ended after the tragic sinking of the SS City of Benares.
Furthermore, the mandatory blackout, instituted in September 1939, became a highly unpopular yet necessary aspect of wartime life.
London shop windows in Mayfair, specially designed to minimise damage during the Blitz. Filmed by amateur filmmaker Rosie Newman as part of her film Britain At War.
Colour Footage Of London During The Blitz | Imperial War Museums (iwm.org.uk)
...lacked adequate shelters...
Despite meticulous planning, civil defence efforts were uneven.
Many areas, including parts of London's East End, lacked adequate shelters because authorities had anticipated only brief, daylight raids, not the protracted night attacks that began the Blitz.
The shelter program favoured less secure Anderson and small brick surface shelters, failing to provide the deep, communal protection ultimately needed.
...massive mobilization...
Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) ground crew tethering a barrage balloon, 1941.
H.F. Davis—Topical Press Agency/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Nevertheless, London’s civilians transformed into active defenders.
Organizations saw massive mobilization: the Auxiliary Fire Service (AFS) ballooned from under 20,500 personnel in 1938 to 138,000 by 1939, and the Women's Voluntary Services (WVS) grew to one million members by late 1941, managing evacuations, centers for the displaced, and salvage operations.
Volunteers, including the "Blitz Scouts" who guided fire engines, rapidly filled the ranks of the Home Guard and ARP.
Contrary to dire pre-war predictions of mass air-raid neurosis, the civilian population displayed remarkable adaptability and resilience.
The new civil defence roles fostered a sense of fighting back, leading official histories to conclude that the mental health of the nation may have actually improved.
Once the 'all clear' had sounded and the German bombers had departed, it was the job of the rescue workers to find any survivors amongst the wreckage. Working tirelessly and often in hazardous conditions (unstable, damaged buildings and broken gas pipes to name but two of the dangers they regularly faced) - they performed a vital and heroic service, detecting and recuing survivors who were often buried beneath piles of rubble. Here we see various rescue workers at the site of badly damaged building, somewhere in the UK during The Blitz.
The Battle for Shelter: Underground and Ideology
The government deliberately avoided building deep shelters before the war, a highly controversial policy driven by a mix of pragmatic and ideological fears.
Officials feared the high cost, prolonged construction, and the critical danger that guaranteed safety might encourage occupants to refuse to return to work or that anti-war sentiment would fester in large, concentrated civilian groups.
Advocacy for these shelters, particularly by the Communist Party, was viewed as a politically motivated attempt to damage civilian morale.
...forced a dramatic reversal...
The most significant existing communal protection lay in the London Underground stations.
Although civilians had used them in the First World War, the government initially barred their use in 1939, citing concerns about disrupting troop travel and occupants refusing to leave.
Officials were even ordered to lock station entrances during raids.
However, the intensity of heavy bombing in the second week of the Blitz forced a dramatic reversal: the government relented and ordered the stations opened for refuge.
At its peak in mid-September 1940, the Underground sheltered approximately 150,000 people a night.
Londoners sheltering for the night in Holborn underground station.
...hailed as symbols of national unity...
Life in the deep stations was perilous: direct hits caused casualties, and immense crowds were deadly, tragically demonstrated by the 1943 crush at Bethnal Green tube station that killed 173 people.
Despite the high visibility of the Tube, a November 1940 census showed only 4% of residents used it, with 60% staying at home, relying instead on private Anderson and Morrison shelters.
Public demand eventually compelled the government to authorize new deep shelters in October 1940, though they were completed only after the heaviest bombing had passed. Conditions later improved, with stoves, canteens, and bunk tickets introduced.
While shelters were hailed as symbols of national unity, existing social divisions persisted, leading to arguments and reports of antisemitic sentiment in areas like the East End.
Evacuating the vulnerable
During the tumultuous years of the Blitz, a massive evacuation effort unfolded across the United Kingdom, exemplifying the nation's commitment to protecting its citizens from the relentless aerial bombings launched by Nazi Germany during the Second World War.
It did a thorough assessment to establish the amount of space available and made meticulous preparations for conveying evacuees because it anticipated that around 90% of them would stay in private houses.
...the perceived safety of the countryside...
Operation Pied Piper, the official name for this massive undertaking, was initiated in September 1939, just before the full-scale bombings began.
Over the course of the Blitz, approximately 3.5 million people were evacuated from cities and urban areas to the perceived safety of the countryside.
One of the most prominent groups among the evacuees was children, with around 1.5 million school-aged youngsters removed from the cities.
The primary objective was to shield them from the immediate dangers posed by air raids and potential gas attacks.
Many of these children were billeted with host families, schools, or community centers that had been converted into makeshift shelters.
...faced relentless bombing due to its strategic importance...
London: The capital city was among the most heavily targeted during the bombings.
A staggering 1 million Londoners, particularly children, were evacuated to regions considered less susceptible to enemy attacks, such as Wales, the West Country, and the Midlands.
Liverpool: This vital port city faced relentless bombing due to its strategic importance.
Approximately 400,000 residents were evacuated from Liverpool and its surrounding areas, seeking refuge in comparatively safer regions.
...away from the constant threat of air raids...
Coventry: Following the devastating bombing of Coventry in November 1940, which resulted in extensive casualties and destruction, a substantial number of its residents were evacuated to protect them from further harm.
Birmingham: As an industrial hub, Birmingham was no stranger to the Blitz.
A significant portion of its population, especially children, was relocated to rural areas, away from the constant threat of air raids.
The evacuation effort posed considerable challenges, including the emotional strain of separated families, the adaptation to rural life for urban dwellers, and the demands placed on host communities and resources.
Nevertheless, these evacuations undoubtedly saved lives and provided a measure of safety and respite during a perilous time.
Blitz Spirit: The Unforeseen Psychological Strength
Contrary to pre-war fears and rising casualty estimates, the Blitz failed to trigger a national psychiatric crisis.
The mass trauma anticipated by experts, who had forecast millions of mental casualties, simply did not materialize.
An American observer noted the extraordinary resilience, stating the British people were "staunch to the bone and won't quit."
Civilians adopted a fatalistic humor, describing a heavy day as "very blitzy," and the specialized psychiatric clinics established for mental casualties were ultimately forced to close due to lack of patients.
Office workers making their way through debris as they go to work after a heavy air raid on London. Office workers played a vital part in maintaining the Blitz spirit, often sheltering in basements during raids but swiftly returning to their desks after the 'All Clear.' Their continued presence maintained crucial administrative functions and provided a visible sign of resilience and determination to keep the city running. It also helped preserve of feeling of normality and 'business as usual' despite the challenging conditions.
Imperial War Museum
...about two cases of "bomb neurosis" per week...
(Right) A London barbershop that lost its windows in a bombing raid during the Blitz, November 21, 1940.
the Blitz | Facts, History, Damage, & Casualties | Britannica
Psychoanalysts like Anna Freud were surprised by this stoicism.
Despite the immense stress causing ailments like anxiety attacks and fatigue, society held together.
Tellingly, rates of suicide and drunkenness actually declined, and London recorded only about two cases of "bomb neurosis" per week.
Civilians maintained stability by staying with family, leading to a growing avoidance of evacuation programs.
Life persisted defiantly: pub visits increased, 13,000 people attended cricket at Lord's, and large crowds often gathered at bomb sites. Some civilians even told surveyors they "enjoyed" the raids if they occurred occasionally.
...morale remained exceptionally high...
Overall British morale remained exceptionally high despite continuous bombardment and military setbacks.
Public support for Winston Churchill was virtually unanimous, polling at 89% in October 1940, while support for peace negotiations plummeted.
Setbacks fueled resolve, prompting massive volunteering for the Home Guard. Industrial workers responded by working longer shifts, and financial contributions surged for "Spitfire Funds."
The number of workdays lost to strikes in 1940 dropped to a historic low, proving collective determination was the most powerful countermeasure.
Neglect and Betrayal: The RAF's Night Defence Failure
British air doctrine, rooted in the cult of the offensive, prioritized attacking the Luftwaffe at its bases and factories over domestic defence.
This focus proved disastrously impractical at the start of the Blitz, as RAF Bomber Command lacked the necessary technology for night operations, a deficit resulting from fund diversion and not fixed until 1943.
Furthermore, until late 1939, the RAF had few specialist night-fighters and relied on severely under-equipped anti-aircraft units.
...disregarded the lessons of the First World War...
This neglect disregarded the lessons of the First World War, where German bombers inflicted significant casualties, proving night defence was possible.
Instead, funds were funneled into the new radar day fighter system, based on the flawed assumption that the difficulty RAF crews had with night navigation meant German crews would be equally crippled.
The Chamberlain government had explicitly minimized night defence efforts, leading to a systemic failure.
...masterfully secured victory...
Although Hugh Dowding masterfully secured victory in the daylight Battle of Britain, his force had scant resources for the night threat.
When the Luftwaffe shifted tactics on the 7th September 1940, Dowding faced sharp criticism. While he was responsible for overall air defence, the Government and Air Ministry were ultimately accountable for the pre-war resource limitations.
Dowding, perceived as slow to react, was summoned to explain the poor state of night defences and was ultimately scapegoated for a systemic political and budgetary failure, despite the support of figures like Churchill distancing themselves.
...overcame the inaccuracies of celestial navigation...
The Luftwaffe’s night success stemmed from a technological advantage: precise radio navigation devices known collectively as the Battle of the Beams.
These systems overcame the inaccuracies of celestial navigation:
- Knickebein ("Crooked Leg"): An adaptation of the commercial Lorenz beam, this system used two aerials to create converging beams over the target, guiding the bomber to the drop zone via audio signals.
- X-Gerät ("X-Device"): Reserved for pathfinder crews, this high-frequency system used timed pulses and three electronic cross-beams to activate a precise bombing clock, ensuring bomb release directly over the target.
- Y-Gerät ("Y-Device"): The most complex, this used autopilot and transponder signals monitored by a ground controller to precisely track the bomber's position and issue a code word for the bomb drop.
...used highly inventive methods...
The British response was launched after Dr. R. V. Jones discovered the beams following a captured German boast.
Using Avro Ansons, the beams were located (including one aimed at Derby).
The first jamming operations used highly inventive methods, including requisitioned hospital electrocautery machines.
The main counter-operation was meaconing, run by Wing Commander Edward Addison's Electronic Counter Measures (ECM) unit.
This involved using masking beacons (meacons) to produce false radio navigation signals, subtly widening the German beams and confusing crews, rapidly eroding their confidence in the systems.
...widespread ruses to divert bombers...
As night-fighters and adequate anti-aircraft defences were months away, the British deployed widespread ruses to divert bombers. "Starfish" diversionary targets included realistic dummy airfields and elaborate fire simulations for industrial areas.
These decoys used techniques like carbon arc lamps to mimic tram wire flashes and boiler fire units that injected water into oil fires to produce bursts imitating German incendiary bombs.
These carefully timed deceptions successfully drew bombs away from real targets, undermining the German offensive.
7th September -The Inferno Unleashed: The Opening of the Blitz
The morning of Saturday, September 7, 1940, began with an ominous calm, marking a fatal strategic shift in the air war.
This day launched Operation Loge, Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring’s campaign for the wholesale destruction of London - the decisive third phase of the Battle of Britain.
Convinced that one overwhelming blow would shatter British resolve, Göring confidently held a lavish picnic at Cap Blanc Nez as the massive bomber formations assembled.
The day began with shallow probes, including around 30 Bf 109s striking Dover and Hawkinge with minor damage, followed by reconnaissance flights across the country.
One Dornier Do 215 was shot down by No. 266 Squadron over the North Sea. Midday saw skirmishes over East Kent as 70 German aircraft tested coastal defences.
A Luftwaffe incendiary device which burnt itself out on an asphalt roof during the Blitz.
Mary Evans Picture Library
...critically misjudged the objective...
At 15:40 hours, radar detected the build-up of the largest raid of the war yet: an armada of more than 1,100 aircraft, including 372 bombers and over 600 Bf 109 escorts.
The main force, consisting of He 111s, Do 17s, and Ju 88s, crossed the coast in two massive waves.
British sector controllers, under Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park, critically misjudged the objective, scrambling squadrons to protect airfields instead of the unrecognised primary target: the London Docklands.
The crucial Duxford Big Wing was slow to form, arriving 20 minutes too late to intercept the inbound bombers.
German bombers flying over Woolwich during the Blitz. On September 7, 1940, the opening night of the Blitz, the Woolwich Arsenal—a massive production facility for British munitions—was a primary target. German bombers inflicted heavy damage on the site, sparking massive, widespread fires that illuminated the East End docks. While production was disrupted, the attack confirmed the shift in focus away from RAF airfields and toward industrial and morale targets.
...waves of bombers obliterated industrial areas...
Following the serpentine path of the River Thames, the bombers hit the docklands. At 17:00 hours, bombs struck the oil tanks at Thameshaven.
Within minutes, waves of bombers obliterated industrial areas, including the Woolwich Arsenal and the Royal Docks, igniting forty miles of dockfront.
Gunpowder stores exploded at Woolwich, and working-class neighbourhoods like Millwall and Poplar were engulfed.
The Beckton gasworks sustained severe damage.
The conflagration was so intense one fire officer desperately radioed, “Send all the pumps you’ve got, the whole bloody world’s on fire.”
St Nicholas' Hospital staff, including five nurses, sweep the road, Tewson Road, Plumstead. The whole northern block of the hospital was completely demolished during one of many air-raids in the area during the Blitz. In 1945, the hospital was further damaged by a V1 flying bomb. The hospital was local to the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich, which was London's main military-industrial establishment. As a huge and unavoidable military target, the Woolwich Arsenal ensured that its surrounding residential areas, including the adjacent East End docks and neighborhoods, faced constant peril throughout the Blitz. German efforts to destroy munitions production meant that nearby civilian homes and infrastructure were routinely engulfed by large-scale fires and explosions, tragically making working-class neighborhoods primary zones of destruction and massive civilian casualties.
...forced to turn back due to fuel limits...
RAF squadrons fought valiantly: the Polish No. 303 Squadron claimed ten Do 17s destroyed.
Crucially, many German bombers reached targets unopposed because their Bf 109 escorts were forced to turn back due to fuel limits.
This window allowed the Big Wing, though late, to attack retreating formations.
Despite this, the RAF lost 25 aircraft, and the battle tragically claimed pilots like Squadron Leader J.S. O’Brien.
...immediate and brutal...
The civilian cost was immediate and brutal: 448 people were killed and 1,337 seriously injured.
The hardest-hit sites, including the Royal Docks and Silvertown (described as a "raging inferno"), were paralyzed by burst water mains and railway destruction.
The bombing continued relentlessly into the night.
At 20:22 hours, unescorted bombers guided by the massive glow of London’s fires launched a seven-hour attack, dropping 333 tons of high explosives.
Major targets included the Battersea Power Station and infrastructure across Southwark, Stepney, and Finsbury.
Sergeant Bohumír Fürst of No. 310 (Czechoslovak) Squadron is greeted by the squadron mascot on returning to RAF Duxford after a sortie in his Hawker Hurricane Mk I Hurricane P3143 'NN-D', 7th September 1940. On September 7, 1940, the day the Day Blitz began, the Czech-crewed No. 310 Squadron intercepted German bomber streams heading for London. Flying Hurricanes from Duxford, they engaged the enemy in fierce combat over Kent, successfully contributing to the defense of the capital during the strategic shift away from the airfields. The squadron was formed on 10 July 1940 at Duxford, the first RAF squadron to be raised with pilots who were foreign nationals, in the case of No. 310 being escaped Czechoslovakian pilots. Led by Squadron Leader Douglas Blackwood and using experienced pilots the squadron was operational by 18 August and as part of 12 Group became involved in the Battle of Britain as part of the Duxford 'Big Wing'. The squadron claimed 37.5 victories during the battle, while Furst is credited with 6 kills during the course of the war.
(Image courtesy of the Imperial War Museum, CH 1296) (Colourised by Benjamin Thomas) https://www.facebook.com/worldwarincolor
...a profound strategic turning point...
By 04:30 hours on September 8, the last raiders withdrew.
The Luftwaffe lost 41 aircraft, yet the day was a profound strategic turning point.
By shifting to a terror campaign against London, the Luftwaffe inadvertently spared the RAF’s critical sector airfields, allowing Fighter Command to recover.
London was now set to endure bombing every night for the next fifty-seven consecutive nights.
8th September
Sunday, September 8, 1940, began with an unnerving calm that exposed the catastrophic damage from the first night of the Blitz.
East London was a massive conflagration: the great Royal Docks remained fully ablaze, sending up columns of smoke visible for miles.
Fires, stoked by raw materials, raged at Silvertown and Wapping, crippling industrial areas.
South of the Thames, residential districts like Deptford were heavily bombed. Yet, despite the apocalyptic scenes - with blocked roads and ruptured water mains hampering fire crews -civilians emerged with stoic determination, salvaging belongings in prams.
...offered a critical respite...
The air war offered a critical respite, with morning activity limited to coastal reconnaissance, granting Fighter Command a brief reprieve.
However, at 11:30 hours, the main daylight assault began: a formation of twenty Dornier Do 17 bombers and thirty Bf 109 escorts crossed the Channel near Deal, intending to strike London.
...successfully prevented the bombers...
The RAF counterattack was immediate and fierce over Kent. Spitfires and Hurricanes from Nos. 41, 46, 222, and 605 Squadrons engaged, but the Bf 109 escort proved overwhelming. Sub-Lieutenant J.C. Carpenter of No. 46 Squadron was shot down and died after baling out over the Isle of Sheppey.
Despite the losses, including three Hurricanes claimed by the Bf 109s, the RAF successfully prevented the bombers from reaching the capital.
In return, a Bf 109 was destroyed near Sevenoaks and two Do 17s were brought down over Maidstone.
While London was spared, bombs fell across Kent, damaging the railway at West Malling.
Cheery homeowners in Northfleet, Kent, pose outside their wrecked houses in 1940. Kent became known as 'Bomb Alley' during the Blitz, with the area of land running from the Thames Estuary on the shores of Essex down to the white cliffs of Dover targeted relentlessly by the Germans. Dover, 22 miles from the French coast, was particularly badly hit, earning it the nickname 'Hell's Corner'
...the battle was far from over...
The day’s fighting claimed seasoned ace Oblt. Hans Kunert, though Oblt. Helmut Wick added three more kills to his tally.
But the battle was far from over.
At 20:00 hours, nearly 250 unescorted bombers from Luftflotte 3 appeared, guided by the immense glow of London’s fires, for a nine-hour continuous attack.
The already smoldering East End was struck again; hospitals, including London Hospital and St. Thomas’, suffered direct hits, as did a public shelter in Islington.
Rail infrastructure was crippled, with trains bombed at Victoria and unexploded ordnance closing the vital Waterloo line.
The night raid claimed 412 dead and 747 injured—a higher toll than the first night.
...fixation on civilian terror...
Crucially, no RAF airfields were hit for the second consecutive day.
Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park recognized this as “Göring’s greatest mistake.”
The Luftwaffe’s fixation on civilian terror, while inflicting brutal damage, inadvertently allowed Fighter Command to recover, leaving its core defensive structure intact for the fifty-seven consecutive nights of bombing that followed.
9th September: The Interrupted Assault and the RAF’s Reprieve
The morning of September 9, 1940, brought a vital calm, confirming a major shift in Luftwaffe strategy.
After two days of mass destruction, the focus was firmly on London and not the RAF’s sector airfields, granting Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park and his ground crews a crucial window to repair damaged bases like Biggin Hill and Kenley.
This operational error by Göring was, in Park's view, the key to Fighter Command’s survival.
...a massive build-up over Calais...
The early hours saw only minor reconnaissance raids over the East Coast, allowing the Dowding System to conserve resources.
At 16:05 hours, however, radar detected a massive build-up over Calais.
By 16:55 hours, an armada of some 300 aircraft - bombers (He 111s, Do 17s, Ju 88s) heavily escorted by over a dozen Bf 109 Gruppen - crossed the Channel.
Observing the enemy’s predictable course toward London, Park noted wryly: “When will they ever learn… same time, same course, and the same target.”
...immediate and fierce...
In response, twenty-four RAF squadrons were scrambled.
Park instructed his controllers to hold fire on the leading Bf 109 escorts and strike the bomber stream itself.
The resulting battle over Surrey and Kent was immediate and fierce.
No. 607 Squadron intercepted He 111s near Guildford, losing six Hurricanes, while P/O G.M. Forrester was killed in a mid-air collision.
...plunged into the bomber formations...
The elite No. 303 (Polish) Squadron engaged Bf 109s near Tonbridge, with aces like Sgt. Frantisek claiming victories, despite some Hurricanes being written off.
Simultaneously, Douglas Bader’s controversial “Big Wing” - disobeying orders by climbing to 22,000 feet - arrived over Kent and Surrey.
The Wing plunged into the bomber formations, successfully disrupting the attack and claiming 21 enemy aircraft destroyed.
...aggressive RAF attacks...
The aggressive RAF attacks, combined with a German directive to abandon mission if opposition was too strong, caused dozens of bombers to jettison their loads over open country.
Few reached their intended targets in London. The RAF lost 17 aircraft, while the Luftwaffe lost 30 confirmed aircraft.
Prominent German aces like Major Werner Mölders (who reached his 35th victory) continued to claim, but the tactical objective of the bombing raid had failed.
...a nine-hour night campaign...
Relief was short-lived. By 20:00 hours, nearly 250 bombers from Luftflotte 3 began a nine-hour night campaign.
The attack concentrated on the City of London, striking near St Paul’s Cathedral and the Bank of England.
Crucial infrastructure was hit: rail lines were blocked, Fulham Power Station was set ablaze, and unexploded ordnance landed in Buckingham Palace gardens.
Cultural sites like Madame Tussaud’s were damaged.
...night-long terror...
Crucially, the attack was now nationwide.
Raids struck Liverpool, Derby, Birmingham, and Nottingham, with I./KG 27 damaging the Lancashire Steel Corporation.
The night-long terror proved the RAF could break the daylight raids, but the Blitz had officially broadened its scope, forcing Londoners into shelters with a resilience that would define the upcoming fifty-seven consecutive nights of bombing.
10th September
Tuesday, 10th September 1940, brought a vital operational lull, as widespread poor weather with low cloud and rain hampered large-scale aerial operations.
Forced to scale back, the Luftwaffe launched sporadic, low-level “Piratenangriffe” (pirate raids) using single aircraft to hit RAF targets under the cover of clouds.
This meteorological gift was seized by Fighter Command. Previously damaged sector airfields, including Biggin Hill, used the time to make significant repairs and improve aircraft replenishment.
In the morning, German reconnaissance aircraft, including a Ju 88, successfully evaded interception over the East Coast and inland to central London, demonstrating the difficulty of defense in thick cloud.
...the activity escalated sharply...
In the afternoon, the pirate raids continued: Tangmere and RAF West Malling were briefly strafed and bombed.
Near Newhaven, a Do 17 damaged a key railway electricity substation.
Around 18:00 hours, a final daylight thrust toward Biggin Hill was intercepted, resulting in the destruction of a Dornier of 9./KG 76.
As dusk settled, the activity escalated sharply. From 20:00 hours, Luftflotte 3 launched continuous night waves, with over 150 bombers striking the capital between 01:00 and 04:30 hours.
Major fires were ignited across the City and East End, hitting St Katherine’s Dock and the East End Maternity Hospital. Over 1,000 incendiaries were dropped on Brentwood.
Rows of houses lie destroyed on either side of the road in East Ham, east London, after an attack. Residents flocked into the streets to begin clearing the damage, as one man pushes a cart full of bagged debris. A policeman talks with one of the homeowners as people collect what remains of their belongings. East Ham South saw 89 high explosive bombs and eight parachute mines dropped during the Blitz, while East Ham Central saw 36 and 1 respectively. The East End remained the relentless focal point of the Daylight Blitz throughout September 1940, defining the Luftwaffe's strategic shift. German formations consistently targeted the vast Royal Docks and surrounding industrial infrastructure. This concentration of force meant that the densely populated working-class residential areas near the Thames bore the most catastrophic and repetitive damage, cementing the East End's status as the primary civilian target of the campaign.
...struck key provincial targets...
Crucially, the attack was now widespread and strategic. Raids struck key provincial targets, including Liverpool via the Irish Sea, successfully damaging a blast furnace at the Lancashire Steel Corporation.
Simultaneously, Bomber Command retaliated, hitting the Potsdamer railway station in Berlin and destroying German aircraft on the ground at Eindhoven.
The day also saw the formal establishment of the Italian Corpo Aereo Italiano (CAI) for operations against Britain.
Though politically significant, the force’s lack of modern equipment meant it would play only a minor role in the broader, escalating, and nationwide night campaign.
11th September
Wednesday, September 11, 1940, the original date set for Unternehmen Seelöwe (Operation Sealion), found Germany wholly unprepared for invasion.
The failure of the Luftwaffe to destroy RAF Fighter Command - a necessary prerequisite for invasion - forced the Wehrmacht to keep its reduced invasion fleet of barges pinned down by RAF Bomber Command attacks on French ports.
...sporadic reconnaissance flights...
The day’s air activity began quietly with only sporadic reconnaissance flights over the coast.
However, by 14:45 hours, British radar detected a massive assembly: two formations, each of about 150 aircraft, crossing the Kent coast toward the Thames Estuary.
The attack force included He 111s of KG 1 and KG 26 targeting London's docklands, covered by a dense, layered escort of Bf 109s and Bf 110s of JG 51 and ZG 26.
...devastatingly effective...
Fighter Command launched a full mobilization of twenty-four squadrons, including units from 11 Group and Douglas Bader’s Big Wing.
The complex German escort system faltered under the aggressive RAF response. No. 303 (Polish) Squadron was devastatingly effective, with pilots like F/O Lokuciewski and F/O Henneberg claiming multiple kills against Do 17s, He 111s, and Bf 109s.
The heavy fighting resulted in 29 RAF aircraft lost (18 pilots killed) versus 29 Luftwaffe aircraft lost.
...a coordinated strike...
Despite the heavy defence, the bombers inflicted damage on London’s docklands and suburbs.
A public shelter on Lewisham High Street was hit, causing around 100 casualties, and Deptford Central Hall collapsed with 50 people trapped.
Simultaneously, Luftflotte 3 launched a coordinated strike on Portsmouth and Southampton at 16:10 hours.
A widowed, elderly man sits in the rubble of his home after he went out to take his dog for a walk before finding his wife had died in his house when it was destroyed in a Blitz attack before his return. The Daylight Blitz resulted in high, widespread civilian casualties, primarily because the concentrated raids on docklands and industrial targets inevitably struck surrounding residential homes. Initial attacks, especially on September 7th in the East End, killed hundreds and destroyed vast working-class neighborhoods. Though the period was shorter than the night campaign, daylight bombing was devastatingly focused, resulting in massive loss of life in single, localized incidents like hits on public shelters and family homes. Around 13 Civil Defence workers can be seen sifting through the wreckage in the background. The Civil Defence Service was a civilian voluntary organisation set up by the Home Office in 1935.
...night brought no respite...
Bf 110 fighter-bombers of Erprobungsgruppe 210 penetrated the defences to dive-bomb the Cunliffe-Owen Aircraft Works at Eastleigh, striking a shelter and killing 52 people.
As the Germans withdrew, they were pursued, with III./JG 26 intercepting and destroying a returning Coastal Command Blenheim, earning Hauptmann Gerhard Schöpfel the Ritterkreuz for his twentieth victory.
The British coastal town of Dover was also shelled from German batteries in France, causing seven deaths.
The night brought no respite. Raids began at 20:20 hours, targeting London and expanding to the Bristol Channel and Merseyside docks.
Home Security recorded widespread disruption, including heavy damage to the Central Telegraph Office.
Though aces like Major Werner Mölders and Major Adolf Galland continued to claim victories, the failure to secure air superiority meant the invasion, Operation Sealion, was effectively postponed indefinitely.
Hauptmann Gerhard Schöpfel earned the Ritterkreuz for his action on the 11th September 1940. The Ritterkreuz (Knight's Cross) was Nazi Germany's second highest military decoration, awarded for extreme battlefield bravery or outstanding military leadership across all branches of the Wehrmacht.
12th September - The Mid-Battle Lull: Probes and Recovery
Thursday, 12th September 1940, was dominated by unsettled, rainy weather, enforcing a significant lull in the air war.
This reduced intensity offered RAF Fighter Command a vital reprieve, allowing damaged airfields—now nearly 85 per cent operational—to complete crucial repairs.
The Luftwaffe, shifting its strategy from airfields to terror bombing, was forced to rely on scattered reconnaissance and harassing probing attacks.
The day began with German aircraft, including Ju 88s, testing defences over the Humber and Swanage. No. 151 Squadron achieved an early success, destroying one Ju 88 over the Humber.
Despite the limited scale, civilian areas suffered: a Ju 88 bombed Harrogate, injuring fifteen people, and another aircraft savagely machine-gunned rescue crews after bombing Hastings.
...machine-gunned while descending by parachute...
The Germans focused on transport links and military sites.
Raids struck near Reading and Banbury, damaging the Great Western Railway line.
Successful RAF interceptions were few, but No. 605 Squadron destroyed a Do 215 south of Cap Gris-Nez.
The day was tragically marked by the loss of Wing Commander John S. Dewar of No. 213 Squadron.
Taking advantage of the lull for a flight to Tangmere, Dewar encountered enemy aircraft; after bailing out, he was reportedly machine-gunned while descending by parachute, a grim act that claimed the life of the senior commander.
...the bombing was scattered...
The night of the 12th September brought a mercifully lighter blitz, with only about 50 German bombers crossing the Channel, mostly as single sorties aimed at London, Liverpool, and South Wales.
While bombs caused damage in Fulham and Battersea, the bombing was scattered.
The threat of a major disaster was averted in the City when Royal Engineers Lieutenant R. Davies and Sapper J. Wylie heroically defused a delayed-action bomb near St Paul’s Cathedral, earning them the George Cross.
...the price of the attacks remained high...
Despite the reduced attack scale, British anti-aircraft (AA) defenses remained effective, with one German aircraft shot down over North London and another claimed by the Balloon Barrage.
With 168 civilians killed and 689 injured, the price of the attacks remained high, but the overall lack of strategic damage cemented the Luftwaffe's strategic error, giving the RAF the time needed to consolidate its strength.
13th September
Friday the 13th September 1940, dawned with Unternehmen Seelöwe (Operation Sealion) stalled, as Hitler's military advisors grew concerned over his rhetorical fixation on destroying London.
The necessary prerequisite - the annihilation of RAF Fighter Command - had not been met, confirming the strategic failure of the initial air campaign.
...exploiting poor visibility...
Daylight operations reflected this shift, focusing on sporadic raids over the Southeast, often exploiting poor visibility.
Between 07:30 and 09:30 hours, German aircraft crossed the coast at a rate of nearly one every eight minutes.
Though bad weather hampered RAF response, Sergeant James “Ginger” Lacey of No. 501 Squadron scored a kill against an He 111 over Kent before successfully baling out.
...a brazen, symbolic attack...
The day's raids were individually devastating: Heinkels demolished nine houses in Maidstone, killing four civilians, while another bomber made a brazen, symbolic attack on Buckingham Palace at 11:10 hours.
Six high-explosive bombs straddled the royal residence, damaging the chapel while King George VI and Queen Elizabeth were present.
Further afield, a Focke-Wulf Fw 200 made the first confirmed enemy action over Northern Ireland.
On the 13th September 1940, a lone German bomber hit Buckingham Palace with six high-explosive bombs. King George VI and Queen Elizabeth were present inside. The bombs damaged the chapel and shattered royal quarters, yet the uninjured couple's stoic decision to remain at the Palace served as a powerful testament to national resilience, profoundly boosting morale. Here, the King and Queen assess the damage the day after.
...cementing the Luftwaffe’s strategic error...
Combat losses were light, with the RAF losing three aircraft and the Luftwaffe losing seven, including aircraft brought down by the Balloon Barrage.
Critically, no RAF personnel were reported killed or wounded on the ground, cementing the Luftwaffe’s strategic error.
The night brought sustained bombardment on London and expanding strikes on provincial targets like Cardiff.
Despite the chaos, a British Blenheim night-fighter successfully downed an He 111 over North Weald.
Although 168 civilians were killed and 689 injured, Hitler's simultaneous high-level meeting in Berlin produced no new invasion orders, confirming that the immediate threat of a landing had passed, even as the terror bombing continued.
14th September: The Reprieved Invasion
Saturday, 14th September 1940, was marked by cloudy, rainy weather, leading Hitler to once more postpone Unternehmen Seelöwe (Operation Sealion).
This delay offered RAF Fighter Command a critical reprieve, even as the Luftwaffe sustained pressure through probing reconnaissance and two major afternoon attacks that penetrated London’s Inner Artillery Zone.
The day began with scattered German aircraft, including He 111s, testing defenses along the coast.
Low-level daylight bombing caused severe civilian losses: a cinema in Brighton was demolished, killing thirty-five people, while a daylight strike on a paper-mill gala in Warrington killed fourteen.
Report by the East Kent Gazette, 14th September 1940.
...a stream of roughly 150 heavily escorted aircraft...
The first major assault began around 15:20 hours, with a stream of roughly 150 heavily escorted aircraft advancing toward London.
Fighter Command launched twenty-two squadrons from No. 11 Group, reinforced by five from No. 12 Group. Intense engagements broke out across Kent and the Thames Estuary.
The Luftwaffe's escort system, though dense, suffered losses: Oblt. Kurt Dähne of JG 26 was shot down, and Fw. Heinz Ettler was captured.
...the high-stakes nature of the dogfights...
RAF losses were matched in aircraft (13 each), but the RAF suffered fewer airmen casualties (4 to 19).
Effective interceptions prevented most bombers from reaching central London in strength, although bombs did strike Battersea Power Station and damage the Southern Railway bridge.
German aces like Major Werner Mölders and Major Adolf Galland continued to claim victories, underscoring the high-stakes nature of the dogfights.
The second coordinated assault at 18:10 hours targeted sector stations, forcing rearming RAF squadrons back into the air.
Following this engagement, German pilots Oblt. Joachim Müncheberg and Hptm. Rolf Pingel were both awarded the Ritterkreuz upon their return.
Night activity was thankfully reduced, though single raids targeted London, Liverpool, and the Midlands.
Civilian casualties were high for the day, but no critical strategic targets were destroyed.
Luftwaffe Major Werner Molders the leading German ace, was a highly successful fighter pilot during the Daylight Blitz. Flying his Bf 109, he consistently engaged and downed RAF fighters while escorting bombers attacking London and the Southeast.
World War II in Color: Bio of Luftwaffe Ace Werner Mölders (1913-1941)
Life goes on: The wedding ceremony of Tom Dowling and Miss Martha Coogan being married by Father Finn, who helped the bride over the debris in this destroyed Roman Catholic Church on the 14th September 1940. The Blitz's indiscriminate nature caused immense damage to Britain's religious heritage. Hundreds of churches and synagogues, including over 150 in London alone, were destroyed or heavily damaged, symbolizing the attack on British culture and faith. These losses represented an irreparable cultural blow to communities nationwide, but the destruction ultimately failed to break the nation's spiritual resolve.
Incredible colourised WWII photos show joy amidst the horror of the Blitz | Daily Mail Online
...blunted by determined RAF interceptions...
The day closed with Fighter Command intact.
The Luftwaffe’s concentrated daylight thrusts were repeatedly blunted by determined RAF interceptions over Kent and the Estuary.
With the invasion postponed and the RAF retaining air superiority, the intense struggle was effectively shifting away from a decisive, climactic battle and toward a protracted war of attrition.
15th September
By mid-September 1940, the Luftwaffe’s campaign against RAF Fighter Command had reached its absolute tipping point.
Operation Sea Lion, Adolf Hitler’s planned invasion of Britain, was scheduled provisionally for the 17th September, but only if the German air force achieved undeniable air superiority first.
With the deadline looming and unpredictable autumn weather closing in, Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring issued orders on September 14 for a maximum-effort, daylight assault on London the following day.
This massive attack - the fifth large-scale raid on the capital - was intended to shatter British morale and eliminate the last remaining strength of Fighter Command.
This high-altitude reconnaissance image of Dover was taken by the Luftwaffe. The image was captured in an effort to try and work out the location of anti-aircraft defences before the launch of the daytime raid on the 15th September 1940 - Battle of Britain Day.
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8507915/The-girl-13-helped-win-Battle-Britain.html
...repeated assurances of victory...
Crucially, German aircrews had low morale despite repeated assurances of victory.
They had been told for months that the RAF was defeated, yet every mission met fierce resistance.
As General Adolf Galland later summarized the feeling among fighter pilots: “Failure to achieve any notable success, constantly changing orders betraying lack of purpose and obvious misjudgment of the situation by the Command… had a most demoralizing effect on us, the fighter pilots, who were already overtaxed by physical and mental strain.”
...rapid recovery and steely resolve...
In Britain, the picture was one of rapid recovery and steely resolve. Airfields were repaired, aircraft losses were replaced, and the vital radar stations were fully operational.
The Luftwaffe’s attempts to break the British air defense system had failed. By the 15th September, the RAF was ready.
The day began with fine weather over Southern England. At RAF Uxbridge, Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park received early radar reports of formations gathering.
Prime Minister Winston Churchill and his wife were visiting No. 11 Group headquarters, and Park escorted them to the operations room.
As contacts appeared, Park remarked to Churchill: “This, I think, is what we have been waiting for. I think that it is about to happen.”
...radar tracked multiple formations...
By 09:30 hours, the Chain Home radar tracked multiple formations off Dover, Harwich, and the Thames Estuary.
RAF squadrons were scrambled, though most German probes turned back.
The first major wave, however, launched at 10:10 hours, led by Major Alois Lindmayr of I./KG 76.
This formation included Do 17s from KG 76 and a formidable fighter escort of Bf 109s (from JG 3, JG 26, JG 52, JG 53) and Bf 110s.
The bomber stream, consisting of Dornier Do 17s, Heinkel He 111s, and Junkers Ju 88s, flew in stepped formations between 15,000 and 26,000 feet.
...critically allowing Fighter Command time to gain altitude...
At 10:30 hours, radar confirmed over 40 aircraft assembling between Calais and Boulogne.
By 11:00 hours, the wave crossed the Kent coast.
A strong headwind slowed the German advance, critically allowing Fighter Command time to gain altitude. Park committed nearly all of No. 11 Group.
Spitfires from Nos. 72 and 92 Squadrons scrambled from Biggin Hill to patrol at 25,000 feet, later joined by Nos. 603 and 609.
Hurricanes (Nos. 17, 229, 253, 303, 501) were vectored toward the London approaches.
Interceptions began between 11:20 and 11:30, with Nos. 72 and 92 Squadrons hitting the escorting Bf 109s from altitude.
The intense fighting and the headwind soon depleted the Bf 109s’ fuel reserves, forcing many escorts to break off early, leaving the bombers increasingly vulnerable.
...executed a devastating 12-aircraft head-on attack...
As the German stream neared London, Churchill stood silently beside Park at the plotting table, watching every available squadron tag move into the fight.
He turned to Park and asked quietly: “What other reserves have we?”
Park’s reply was the stark climax of the battle: “There are none.”
By 11:45, the battle was in full fury over southeast London. Reinforced RAF fighters poured in, including the Polish pilots of No. 303 Squadron.
No. 605 Squadron, led by F/L Archie McKellar, executed a devastating 12-aircraft head-on attack.
The intensity was overwhelming for the German crews; as one gunner, Hans Zonderlind, recalled, “it seemed that the whole of the RAF was there.”
The bombing commenced just after midday, striking Battersea, Lambeth, and Stepney, though one high-explosive bomb near Buckingham Palace failed to detonate.
The formation began to withdraw, scattered and damaged.
...the bomber disintegrated beneath him...
A legendary incident occurred over Chelsea: Sergeant Ray Holmes of No. 504 Squadron intercepted a Dornier Do 17Z piloted by Oberleutnant Robert Zehbe.
After repeated attacks, his Hurricane was violently jarred, sending him into a spin.
He bailed out, landing in a dustbin. The Dornier crashed beside Victoria Station, miraculously causing no civilian fatalities.
Though popularized as a deliberate ramming, Holmes’s combat report suggests the bomber disintegrated beneath him.
In a separate fight, Holmes also damaged a Do 17Z fitted with an experimental, malfunctioning rear-firing flamethrower, which was eventually force-landed at Shoreham and captured by the Home Guard.
The highly publicized crash of a single Dornier Do 17 bomber on September 15, 1940, serves as one of the most famous visual moments from the decisive day of the Battle of Britain. This bomber, designated F1+FH and flying with 1./KG76, was part of the massive, maximum-effort morning wave ordered by the Luftwaffe to shatter British defenses and clear the way for Operation Sea Lion. Having taken off from Beauvais-Tille, the Dornier was originally part of a large formation targeting Central London. However, after falling behind due to engine trouble, it was initially savaged by Hurricanes of No. 310 (Czech) Squadron, which killed two crewmen. The pilot, Oblt. Robert Zehbe, ordered the remaining crew to bail out and set the crippled aircraft on autopilot, escaping himself. It was this unmanned bomber, a casualty of the wider air battle, that Sergeant Ray Holmes of No. 504 Squadron encountered over London. Having expended his ammunition, Holmes made the split-second decision to ram the Dornier with his Hurricane's port wing. This attack sheared off the bomber's tail, sending the aircraft—already weakened by the furious fighting across Southeast England—into a violent spin. The catastrophic structural failure caused the bomb load to be ejected (with one bomb falling near Buckingham Palace) and the outer wings to tear off, leading to the dramatic photo of the bomber plunging to earth near Victoria Station. This desperate act of sacrifice and the bomber's destruction symbolized the RAF's fierce, non-stop resistance across the entirety of Battle of Britain Day, confirming to Hitler that his air force had failed to gain air supremacy.
...striking the disengaging German formations...
The famous legless pilot Douglas Bader led the Duxford Wing, engaging the Luftwaffe on the 15th September.
As the Luftwaffe retreated, the Duxford Wing, or Big Wing, led by S/L Douglas Bader, arrived over the Thames corridor, striking the disengaging German formations.
By 12:30 hours, the first wave had collapsed, having suffered heavy losses.
The battle’s opening phase was a clear tactical victory for Fighter Command.
The fighting resumed by 14:15 hours, as British radar detected a massive second wave forming over Calais and Boulogne.
This force was even larger, comprising approximately 170 bombers (Do 17s, He 111s, Ju 88s) and more than 300 fighters. German planners hoped to catch the RAF recovering.
The Duxford "Big Wing," championed and led by the tenacious Squadron Leader Douglas Bader, was a controversial but ultimately effective tactic used at the climax of the Battle of Britain on September 15, 1940. The strategy involved assembling multiple RAF squadrons en masse for powerful, coordinated strikes. Although frequently criticized for its slower response time—it often arrived later than planned—its impact was decisive. When the formation hit the German bomber streams, it shattered the enemy's formations and inflicted unsustainable losses. Its successful deployment on "Battle of Britain Day" conclusively demonstrated Britain's defensive strength, securing the RAF's long-term dominance.
Imperial War Museum https://battleofbritain1940.com/entry/sunday-15-september-1940/
...striking from high altitude to shatter the remaining formations...
Fighter Command’s response was immediate. No. 11 Group scrambled multiple squadrons, including Nos. 66, 72, 73, 213, 249, 253, and 504.
The assault splintered as it pressed inland. No. 303 (Polish) Squadron, scrambled at 14:20, engaged aggressively over Gravesend, drawing high praise for their ferocity in blunting the raid’s momentum, despite two Hurricanes lost.
As the German formations approached London, the Duxford Wing arrived again, striking from high altitude to shatter the remaining formations.
The impact was immediate: Flight Lieutenant W.G. Clouston (No. 19 Sqn) destroyed a Do 17 that spiraled into the sea near Shoeburyness.
Despite thick cloud, the surviving bombers pressed on, dropping 120 tons of ordnance on the West Ham area around 14:45, killing seventeen civilians and injuring over 130.
...a tragic event during the withdrawal...
The Luftwaffe suffered devastating, unsustainable losses: KG 2 lost eight Do 17s, KG 3 lost six aircraft, and KG 53 lost six He 111s, including its commander, Major Max Gruber.
German fighter losses included at least 12 Bf 109s.
In a tragic event during the withdrawal, Oberstleutnant Dr. Hasso von Wedel (JG 27) was shot down and killed a mother and daughter when his plane struck a parked car at Romney Marsh.
...shocked by the scale of the losses...
By day’s end, RAF Fighter Command claimed 176 German aircraft destroyed.
The actual Luftwaffe losses were 61 aircraft, with 93 aircrew killed, captured, or missing. British losses were 31 fighters destroyed and 16 pilots killed or missing.
The German command was shocked by the scale of the losses. Operation Sea Lion was indefinitely postponed, and Göring began transitioning the campaign to less decisive night raids.
From 20:00 hours, waves of He 111s began the Night Blitz on London, Liverpool, the Midlands, Bristol, and South Wales..
A Defiant night fighter from No. 141 Squadron scored a victory.
In a heroic act, Sgt. John Hannah (No. 83 Squadron) received the Victoria Cross for extinguishing a fire on his Hampden with his bare hands during a bombing raid over Antwerp
...the decisive turning point of the campaign...
Sunday, 15th September 1940, later commemorated as Battle of Britain Day, was the decisive turning point of the campaign.
Fighter Command, despite being fully committed, repelled two of the largest coordinated attacks of the war, inflicting unsustainable losses on the Luftwaffe.
Hitler’s central assumption that the RAF was defeated was conclusively disproved.
The postponement of Operation Sea Lion meant that the immediate threat of invasion was over.
As Churchill watched the events unfold at Uxbridge, he understood the profound significance: Britain had not only survived—it had fought back, and won.
16th September
The morning of September 16, 1940, dawned with a tense clarity, defining the definitive pivot point of the Battle of Britain.
In Britain, Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park, commander of No. 11 Group, began the day with sober reflection.
Though the previous day - later celebrated as "Battle of Britain Day" - had been a momentous victory, Park remained concerned over poor coordination between his squadrons.
Units had failed to rendezvous on time, and some had engaged too early from low altitudes, undermining the defensive strategy.
Yet, the morale across Fighter Command had surged, having proven that it could still mass large, coordinated forces and deliver telling blows against the enemy bomber stream.
...bitter recrimination and strategic upheaval...
Across the Channel, the atmosphere was one of bitter recrimination and strategic upheaval. Hermann Göring convened his Luftflotten commanders, reeling from heavy losses on the 15th.
Hitler was reportedly furious: London remained standing, and Fighter Command, contrary to all German intelligence, had met the attackers in superior numbers.
The failure of the strategy shift - from bombing airfields to bombing the capital - was undeniable. Göring's forced decision was clear and final: further large-scale daylight bombing of London was to be abandoned.
The Luftwaffe would revert to striking airfields and production sites, while appeasing Hitler with a massive and sustained intensification of night bombing - the notorious Blitz.
...twenty-one squadrons were scrambled and rapidly vectored...
The day's action was marked by the pervasive hindrance of rain and low cloud, yet the Luftwaffe still sought to test British defenses.
At 07:30, radar plots indicated a mass of around 350 enemy aircraft forming over the Pas-de-Calais.
Waves crossed the Kent coastline, yet Fighter Command’s response was immediate and overwhelming; twenty-one squadrons were scrambled and rapidly vectored.
It is highly probable that the size and speed of the RAF mobilisation, despite the poor weather, was enough to dissuade the Germans from pressing the attack.
By 08:32, the entire force had turned back.
...one of operational collapse...
Only minor skirmishes occurred, notably over the Thames Estuary where Major Werner Mölders, Kommodore of JG 51, engaged and damaged a Hurricane, recording his thirty-eighth confirmed aerial victory.
However, the true story of the German day was one of operational collapse. Hauptmann Erich von Selle’s II./JG 3 lost contact with its bomber escort in heavy cloud.
Upon returning to France, eight of the eighteen Bf 109s landed with dangerously empty fuel tanks, narrowly avoiding forced landings.
When ordered to undertake a second mission two hours later, von Selle refused, citing that his Gruppe was so severely understrength and strained that further losses would render it inoperable.
This defiant act highlighted the cracking operational strain across the Jagdwaffe, signalling the limit of daylight endurance.
...one of the most sustained and destructive nocturnal raids...
As daylight faded, the new strategy was executed.
The night of September 16th initiated what would become one of the most sustained and destructive nocturnal raids of the campaign.
At 19:40, the first hostile formations streamed across the Channel, marking the beginning of a deliberate, methodical, and chillingly staggered attack.
The bombers fanned out across the country - some pushing toward South Wales and the Midlands, but the bulk flying relentlessly toward the capital.
...igniting massive storage tanks...
The concentrated bombing inflicted widespread, severe damage on London's infrastructure.
At Thameshaven, an oil wharf was struck by high explosive and incendiary bombs, igniting massive storage tanks.
The rail network was savaged, with direct hits demolishing the LMS signal box in Hackney and severing critical infrastructure at the Southern Railway Arch in Southwark.
The intensity created unprecedented firestorms: thirty-pump fires broke out across the city, culminating in an eighty-pump inferno at West Smithfield and fifty pumps deployed to Bermondsey.
Outside the capital, the Blitz became a national reality, with Coventry sustaining extensive damage to residential streets and bombs falling on industrial districts in Birmingham and Newcastle.
...exploited the defensive gaps...
Amidst the chaos, lone bombers from the so-called “Pirateneinsätze” exploited the defensive gaps, dropping unscheduled loads over cities like Bath.
For the civilian population, the fear was channeled into a new routine.
Tens of thousands descended into Underground stations by nightfall, turning platforms into communal dormitories and adopting a new way of life shaped by endurance and community in the face of nightly terror.
...a concession born of necessity...
The long night, though devastating, confirmed the strategic failure of the Luftwaffe's daylight campaign.
The German air force lost at least eighteen aircraft during the full 24-hour period.
Fighter Command suffered only five aircraft damaged or destroyed, with a single pilot wounded.
This comparative imbalance cemented the German retreat.
The shift to the Night Blitz was a concession born of necessity, an implicit acknowledgment that the RAF was still winning the battle of attrition in the light.
Yet, it also exploited Britain’s greatest vulnerability: the critical lack of an effective night-fighter defense.
The aerial war had changed its nature, moving from the sharp, decisive clashes of the day to the prolonged, grinding terror of the darkness.
17th September
The morning of September 17, 1940, formalized the strategic defeat of the Luftwaffe in the daylight phase of the Battle of Britain.
A directive arrived from Hitler's headquarters immediately and definitively postponed Operation Sea Lion indefinitely, signaling the successful deflection of the invasion threat.
This monumental decision was instantly confirmed in Britain via Ultra intercepts, which advised the Air Ministry that the withdrawal of invasion infrastructure meant the threat was over for the year.
This strategic retreat forced the Luftwaffe to abandon its goal of air supremacy and transition to a resource-saving strategy of attrition.
Damaged tenements which were struck by a bomb during a German air raid in Burlington Street, Liverpool. 17th September 1940.
Liverpool Echo
...served as strategic bait...
The day’s action was restricted by poor weather and German caution.
However, a major afternoon fighter sweep, involving 300 aircraft from elite units like JG 26 and JG 53, served as strategic bait to lure the RAF into combat without risking bombers.
No. 11 Group countered by scrambling 23 squadrons, resulting in intense dogfights over Kent that cost both sides pilots, including the loss of German ace Oblt. Jakob Stoll.
The severe operational strain on the Jagdwaffe was palpable, cementing the German unwillingness to continue costly daylight mass attacks.
...a prolonged campaign of terror...
As darkness fell, the new strategy took its devastating effect with the commencement of a massive, sustained Night Blitz.
Formations streamed toward London, Liverpool, and the Midlands, initiating a prolonged campaign of terror that targeted rail networks, dockyards, and residential districts indiscriminately.
During this assault, the Luftwaffe introduced a terrifying new weapon: the 1,000-kilogram parachute mine.
These adapted naval ordnance created immense concussive blasts, inflicting brutal material and psychological damage across the capital.
While Fighter Command had achieved its primary objective, the war in the air would continue, fought under the cover of the night.
A wide view of the bomb-damaged shell of the John Lewis department store on London’s Oxford Street, following an air raid on 17th September 1940.
Tuesday 17 September 1940 | The Battle of Britain Historical Timeline
18th September
Despite the indefinite postponement of Operation Sea Lion on the previous day,
The 18th September 1940, offered no pause, instead marking the systematic intensification of Germany’s air campaign.
Daylight began with solitary reconnaissance probes before the Luftwaffe launched its first major thrust at 09:00 hours: approximately 150 aircraft forming over Calais and heading for the Thames Estuary and Tilbury Docks.
This was largely a fighter-baiting mission, but it drew RAF squadrons into combat, resulting in losses like P/O P. Howes of No. 603 Squadron who was killed in the skirmishes near Ashford.
The midday action escalated sharply, with over 200 German aircraft, including Ju 88 bombers heavily escorted by Bf 109s, penetrating deep toward London.
This phase featured a duel of the aces, with Major Adolf Galland claiming three Hurricanes in twenty minutes.
Later, the Duxford Wing, led by Squadron Leader Douglas Bader, successfully intercepted the main bomber force (Do 17s and Ju 88s of III./KG 77) near Gravesend.
The concentrated diving attack caused chaos among the formations and resulted in nineteen confirmed losses among the German bombers, successfully scattering the raid before it could effectively strike the capital.
A large crater in Stevenson Street, Liverpool, which was hit by a German bomb. 18th September 1940.
Liverpool Echo
...the Luftwaffe deployed the terrifying 1,000-kilogram parachute mine...
As daylight faded, the nocturnal threat escalated immediately.
At 19:55 hours, London was placed on Red Alert, as radar tracked an unprecedented 200 aircraft approaching Dungeness.
The Night Blitz began a sustained, systematic bombardment targeting the Thames corridor, with raids extending to Liverpool and Manchester.
During this relentless attack, the Luftwaffe deployed the terrifying 1,000-kilogram parachute mine, one of which struck Westminster’s County Hall. Critical infrastructure, including the Plessey Company Works and the ICI Gunpowder Factory, sustained damage.
The 10-hour bombardment, which did not end until 05:30 the next morning, cemented the strategic reality: the Battle of Britain had transformed into a prolonged war of attrition fought predominantly under the cover of darkness.
19th September
20th September
21st September
Three Spitfire pilots of 19 and 616 Squadrons, discuss aerial combat at Fowlmere, 21st September 1940. Left to right: Flying Officer Francis 'Fanny' Brinsden; Flying Officer Leonard 'Ace' Haines; Pilot Officer Philip 'Zeke' Leckrone, during an RAF Fighter Command Press Day. During the Daytime Blitz (Phase 3 of the Battle of Britain), No. 19 and No. 616 Squadrons were crucial for defending London from their base at Duxford. As part of Douglas Bader’s controversial “Big Wing,” they primarily flew Spitfires and played a vital role in intercepting and disrupting large German bomber formations over the Southeast. Haines and Leckrone were both killed in flying accidents 1941 & 1940.
(Photo source - © IWM CH 1456) https://www.facebook.com/rafcommand
30th September
Oberleutnant Karl Fischer’s Bf109E-1 (Wn.4851 9+) of 7./Jagdgeschwader 27, after a forced landing near Queen Anne’s Gate, Windsor Great Park, Berkshire on the 30th September 1940. The plane is subject to eager attention from the RAF salvage gang. Fischer's mission was as a bomber escort. When the formation was on its way to the objective it was attacked by fighters (possibly Hurricanes from 303 Squadron), this aircraft getting into a dog fight. The combat was broken off and the pilot thought that he had not been hit. However an R/T message from his wingman told the pilot that he had a white petrol plume streaming behind and looking at his petrol gauge he noticed that the tanks were almost empty, so he made a forced landing. There were a number of bullet strikes from astern.
(The pilot was captured and survived unhurt)
Colorised by Doug https://www.facebook.com/worldwarincolor
Map showing the damage London suffered during the Blitz. Note that many of the areas marked in Black - the most heavily hit - were often dockland areas close to the Thames River, which in itself proved to be a useful navigation guide for Luftwaffe bombers.
the Blitz | Facts, History, Damage, & Casualties | Britannic,
Hitler was enraged and issued an order for retaliation on London, which would eventually occur in early September. Part of Hitler's wrath stemmed from him losing face in the eyes of his own people. He now felt that the British had made a fool of him after he pledged that no enemy aircraft would reach Berlin. However, his choice also came at a pivotal time in the Battle of Britain and had unexpected implications, such as giving the Royal Air Force (RAF) much-needed breathing room by diverting Luftwaffe attention away from pounding the RAF and its airfields and instead focussing on the major cities and industrial hubs.
Buildings along Piccadilly damaged by air raids. Filmed by amateur filmmaker Rosie Newman as part of her film Britain At War.
Colour Footage Of London During The Blitz | Imperial War Museums (iwm.org.uk)
The Luftwaffe
Despite Hitlers plans, the Luftwaffe was constrained. Its aircraft, the Dornier Do 17, Junkers Ju 88, and Heinkel He 111s, were capable of performing strategic missions, but their modest bomb loads prevented them from causing significant damage to larger areas. The Luftwaffe's decision in the interwar period to concentrate on medium bombers is due to several reasons.
- The OKL believed a medium bomber force could perform strategic missions just as well as a heavy bomber force.
- Hitler did not intend or foresee a war with Britain in 1939.
- Germany lacked the resources or technical capacity to produce four-engined bombers prior to the war.
A Luftwaffe Junkers JU-88
Although the Luftwaffe was initially determined in its intentions – led in part by a boastful and arrogant commander in Reichsmarschall Herman Goering - it also lacked a defined strategy and insufficient intelligence. Britain was not disclosed to the OKL as a prospective foe until the beginning of 1938. It lacked the time to compile reliable intelligence on Britain.
Additionally, the OKL was unable to decide on an effective plan of action. German strategists had to decide whether the Luftwaffe should focus the majority of its attacks on a single sector of British industry, such as aircraft factories, a network of interconnected industries, like Britain's import and distribution system, or even on a blow intended to lower morale among the British populace.
Over the winter of 1940–1941, the Luftwaffe's strategy grew more and more aimless. Staff disputes at OKL were more about tactics than strategy. It looked increasingly likely that the German offensive was doomed to failure.
Reichsmarschall Herman Goering, overall commander of the Luftwaffe - the German air force.
Civil Defence
The United Kingdom's defence and maintenance of its infrastructure, public services, buildings, and utilities during the Blitz, represented a remarkable display of resilience, ingenuity, and determination in the face of relentless adversity. Despite the heavy bombardment, the nation adopted numerous strategies to safeguard essential assets and ensure the functioning of vital services.
London's citizens contributed significantly to the defence of their city. The Home Guard, the Air Raid Precautions Service (ARP), the Auxiliary Fire Service, and numerous other civilian organisations welcomed many civilians who were unable or unable to enlist in the military. 138,000 people worked for the AFS as of July 1939.
There were just 6,600 full-time and 13,800 part-time firemen nationwide just a year earlier. Before the conflict, 50 million respirators (gas masks) were sent to residents in case a chemical attack started before evacuation.
As the "Blitz Scouts," the Scout Association directed fire trucks to the areas where they were most needed. Numerous unemployed persons were enlisted in the Royal Army Pay Corps and given the Pioneer Corps' salvage and cleanup duties.
Samuel Hoare, the Home Secretary, founded the Women's Voluntary Services for Civil Defence (WVS) in 1938 and viewed it as the organization's female counterpart to the ARP.
The WVS ran canteens, salvage operations, and recycling programmes in addition to setting up centres for people displaced by bombing. One million people had joined the WVS by the end of 1941.
Despite bombings targeting utilities, efforts to maintain them were relentless. Skilled repair crews worked round-the-clock to restore power, water, and gas services in affected areas. These services were crucial for hospitals, emergency services, and households.
Strict building regulations were enforced to enhance the resilience of structures. Builders employed reinforced materials and construction techniques to withstand bombings. Public buildings, hospitals, and utilities were prioritized for reinforced construction.
Emergency repair teams, known as "spider teams," swiftly responded to bomb damage, reinforcing damaged structures to prevent further collapse. This rapid response ensured that essential buildings remained functional.
The implementation of strict blackout measures, which required all buildings to be darkened at night, helped to hide potential targets from enemy aircraft. Additionally, buildings were camouflaged to reduce their visibility from above.
Public information campaigns educated citizens on the importance of protecting infrastructure. Propaganda posters and broadcasts emphasized the role of individuals in safeguarding their homes and community.
Key services, such as utilities and transportation, were equipped with redundant systems. This meant that if one service was disrupted by bombings, an alternative could be activated quickly to ensure continuity.
To safeguard crucial wartime production, factories and industrial facilities were often dispersed to less vulnerable areas, reducing the impact of bombings on war-related industries.
Communities played a significant role in defending infrastructure. Citizens often banded together to extinguish incendiary bombs, clear debris, and protect local assets.
Creative solutions were employed to maintain services. Mobile canteens, for example, provided food and beverages to affected communities, ensuring that basic needs were met during the worst of the bombings.
Despite the immense challenges posed by the Blitz, the United Kingdom's resilience and resourcefulness in defending and maintaining its infrastructure, public services, buildings, and utilities were instrumental in ensuring that essential services continued to function.
One of the mobile canteens donated by Americans through the Allied Relief Fund in operation in a bombed area of London. The vans provide hot food and drink to air-raid victims.
Getty Images/Central Press
Summary
- More than 40,000 civilians were killed by Luftwaffe bombing during the war.
- Almost half of the total civilian casualties occurred in the capital, London, where more than a million houses were destroyed or damaged.
Workers wielding pickaxes and shovels are tasked with clearing away the remains of bombed building that would have once stood next to this Central London church.
Time & Life/Getty Images
Assessment
Ultimately, the attack failed as the Luftwaffe failed to develop an overarching, achievable strategy for destroying the British war industry. They did not concentrate their attacks on a specific industry or target, instead spreading their offensive operations across several sets of industries. This essentially diluted their effort rather than focussing it.
A Messerschmitt is lifted by a crane in September 1940 in Windsor Great Park in Surrey. The aircraft had made a forced landing after being damaged by fighters during a bomber escort mission to London. In executing the emergency landing, Oblt Karl Fischerís plane turned over onto its back although, miraculously, Fischer was captured unhurt.
Pen and Sword/Exclusive Pics Media
Further reading
Colourisers
